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Energies 2020, 13, 340 14 of 21 5.2. Multi-Energy Networks and Flexibility Aspects Multi-energy systems (MES) [81], as an evolution of distributed multi-generation systems [82], add further dimensions and opportunities for energy management in local energy networks, also given by the interaction of different energy carriers. In particular, an MES enables the deployment of multiple network services [83], in which the combination of RES, CHP, boilers, batteries, and TES opens wide prospects to energy shifting [84] and multi-energy arbitrage [85]. An MES also includes the integration among different energy networks into energy hubs [86], considering district heating and cooling (DHC) systems. The TES provides many advantages with respect to other storage systems when coupled with DHC systems. An extended discussion of these advantages and the possible drawbacks is provided in [54]. For example, the reduction of the fluctuations from RES, and the thermal peak shaving or valley filling, could have an impact on the electrical network, as well as the exploitation of power-to-heat (P2H) solutions in which electric boilers are used instead of heat pumps. Energy cost optimisation with integrated electricity, heat, and gas networks and different types of storage (also including ramp constraints) have been formulated and solved in [39]. The provision of ancillary services by heat pumps coupled with TES in a hybrid RES system has been addressed in [87]. In an MES, a key aspect is the enhancement of flexibility to improve the system operation and the opportunities to provide energy services. Among the many definitions of flexibility, for electrical systems flexibility has been indicated as “the general characteristic of the ability of the aggregated set of generators to respond to the variation and uncertainty in net load” [88], or “the capability to balance rapid changes in renewable generation and forecast errors within a power system” [89]. In this context, a TES system can be integrated either at the generation side or at the net load side. The flexibility that can be provided by residential TES for load shifting, energy arbitrage and contingency reserves is discussed in [90]. Multi-energy storage is included among the various flexibility options modelled in [83]. Both electrical boilers and heat storage tanks are considered in [40] to improve flexibility. The heat storage tanks are effective to save energy in the whole energy system. In [91] TES is used in conjunction with dwelling materials in an optimisation process to provide demand response by also considering thermal comfort. The flexibility of using electricity for heating purposes, denoted as P2H, in combination with heat storage, is becoming more and more interesting [92,93]. The potential of P2H could be significantly enhanced by the use of TES, depending on the TES size, as shown in [94] for a district heating application in which electric boilers are used for P2H. 6. Emerging Trends The key aspect focused on the current trends is the flexibility of the multi-energy system operation. In this context, multiple resources are available for providing demand response capabilities, with which a reduction or increase of the electricity taken from the grid (upon request by a specific programme) is possible by also considering energy shifting among different energy carriers. TES is one of the components of the smart heating and cooling strategies that can make the flexibility options available in the short term at relatively low cost [95]. The incorporation of demand response aspects with the use of ETS in order to provide further peak shaving and enhance the RES capacity has been indicated in [61] as smart electric thermal storage (SETS). SETS is a form of decentralised P2H [93] and has been studied in a theoretical and experimental way in [96], with detailed analysis of the heat transfer aspects. Residential TES is an example of a demand-side resource that can be exploited for energy arbitrage, reduction of the variability of the net load and provision of reserves [90]. In the United States, the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) is currently operating a programme called “Duration Addition to electricitY Storage (DAYS)” to develop storage systems with durations of between ten to 100 hours [97]. Around one-half of the projects funded use some forms of TES. Furthermore, ARPA-E is running the programme “High Energy Advanced Thermal Storage” (HEATS), to develop revolutionary and cost-effective TES in three specific areas ofPDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage for Grid Applications
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