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Energies 2020, 13, 340 Technology Low-temperature TES (LT-TES) High-temperature TES (HT-TES) Technologies Sensible heat storage (SHS) [50,57] Latent heat storage (LHS) [50,57] Thermochemical heat storage (THS) [10,50] Table 1. Categorisation of TES technologies. 9 of 21 Round-Trip Efficiency low (<60%) low (<60%) low (<60%) Systems aquiferous low-temperature TES (AL-TES) cryogenic energy storage latent-fusion- heat TES sensible heat TES concrete TES Storage Medium water cryogen (liquid nitrogen or liquid air) Phase Change materials (PCMs) steam or hot water accumulators, graphite, hot rocks, concrete concrete or castable ceramics Duration of Energy Stored medium medium medium Suitable Storage Duration minutes to days minutes to days minutes to months Power Capacity 0–5 MW 0.1–300 MW 0–60 MW Discharge Time 1–8h 1–8h 1–24h+ Self-Discharge/Day 0.5% 0.5–1% 0.5–1% Energy Density (Stored Energy/Volume of the Storage Device) Lifetime Years 10–20 20–40 5–15 Impact on Environment (*) positive (*) W·h·kg−1 80–120 150–250 80–200 W·h·L−1 80–120 120–200 120–500 (*) Small because the technology does not involve fossil combustion, environmental damage, and toxic residuals. Table 2. Advantages, drawbacks, and other properties of TES technologies. Temperature Range up to 50 ◦ C (ground storage and acquifer) up to 110 ◦ C (water tank) up to 400 ◦ C (concrete) Advantages Drawbacks high freezing point (about 100 ◦C) leading to considerable heat losses temperature stability during the discharge process thermal energy storage density less than LHS density specific heat of materials is less than specific heat of LHS Storage Period Storage Density reduced medium high Life Span long limited limited 20 ÷ 40 ◦ C (paraffins) 30 ÷ 80 ◦ C (salt hydrates) energy storage density close to phase change temperature is thermally stable at high temperatures low cost materials (excepting liquid metals and thermal oils) easy availability mature technology at industrial scale limited (heat losses) Limited (heat losses) long non-toxicity of the PCMs compact TES systems due to the use of PCM specific heat of LHS is 50–100 times higher than SHS low thermal conductivity large volume required organic PCM are flammable inorganic PCM are corrosive 20÷200◦C very high no temperature rise occurs during the process leading to an accurate temperature control reduced volumes the thermal energy storage density is the highest there is no thermal loss during storage considering that products are stored at the environment temperature highly compact energy storage the reactants are stored for a long time without provoking any degradation of the stored heat rate of dehydration reaction is slow high cost low reliability potential toxicity low system lifetime issues about recyclabilityPDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage for Grid Applications
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