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Energies 2020, 13, 340 3 of 21 2. Thermal Energy Storage Systems, Performance Parameters and Models 2.1. Characteristics of the TES Systems TES is the technology that allows the temporary storage of thermal energy at low or high temperatures [8] by cooling or heating a storage medium (in a thermal reservoir/tank) in a determined period. The stored energy is later used, after hours, days or months, in heating or cooling applications and power generation. The temperature of the storage medium is maintained at a temperature higher (hotter) or lower (colder) than the ambient temperature. The TES advantages are low carbon footprint and energy demand; low cost of TES system and its maintenance costs; low pollutant emissions; good flexibility in operation; isothermal and superior storage capacity per unit weight; and energy from any thermal or electrical source when required [21]. The TES drawbacks are the relatively low efficiency of the TES system and thermal standby losses (thermal losses between the storage medium and the environment) [11]. The characteristics of TES systems are different with respect to other forms of storage. As such, the types of services that may be provided are only the ones that fit with the TES characteristics. In particular, with respect to electrical energy storage, which can provide relatively fast services at sub-second time scale, e.g., for power quality improvement, grid stability enhancement, and short-time backup power [22,23], a TES system has slower response due to its intrinsic thermal capacity that affects the thermal transients [24]. At the same time, heat (or cooling) cannot be stored for a long time, because of the thermal losses due to the difficulty in insulating the storage devices. For long-term or seasonal storage, TES could be an unsuitable or at least low-priority option to store the power surplus coming from the electrical network, the higher priorities being given to batteries, pumped hydro storage (PHS) or compressed air energy storage (CAES), power-to-gas (P2G) or hydrogen, and use in electric heat pumps [25]. Natural gas could also be considered for storage, however, with the drawback of the CO2 emissions due to the use of natural gas in the boilers [26]. TES systems aimed at reducing the power demand in peak periods are found in centralised systems (associated with CHP, district heating and cooling, large industrial plants, or RES), or in distributed systems (for residential or commercial buildings) [27]. In order to increase the TES life, coordinated control options with multiple CHP systems may be set up by reducing the TES participation in the system operation [28]. Cold TES is a distributed type of TES that uses refrigeration and air conditioning technologies controlled through a virtual power plant to provide load shifting. Cold TES has been significantly addressed for peak load shifting in applications to commercial buildings [29] and cities with semiarid areas [30]. 2.2. Parameters of the TES Technologies Three main parameters are used to represent the TES technologies: 1. The operating temperature of the energy storage material compared with the indoor temperature: for this purpose, there are low-temperature TES material and high-temperature TES material. Examples could be building heating (25–50 ◦C), building cooling (0–12 ◦C), industrial cooling (less than −18 ◦C), and industrial heat storage (over 175 ◦C) [31]. 2. The state of TES material: a distinction is made between sensible heat storage and latent heat storage. The sensible heat is the heat that determines a temperature change (increase or decrease) in a thermal storage material, without changing its chemical composition or phase. The latent heat is the heat that determines the phase change (the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour) in a thermal storage material without modifying the storage material temperature (Figure 1). A phase change takes place in a thermal storage material during heat exchange without variation in the material chemical structure. During the phase change, the heat could be absorbed (in the melting process) or released (in the freezing process).PDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage for Grid Applications
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