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A more complex system with tank storage is shown in Figure 4; a solar combisystem where water store is the central part. The so-called combistore is charged with solar collectors and a second heating source, such as a biofuel or gas boiler, and heat is extracted to two heat sinks of very different characteristics: domestic hot water and space heating [28]. Solar combisystems including combistores were also the topic of the European project Combisol, whose goal was the promotion Sustainability 2018, 10, 191 7 of 32 and standardization of solar combisystems in Europe [29]. Figure 4. Schematic of a solar combisystem with solar collectors and a boiler charging water storage Figure 4. Schematic of a solar combisystem with solar collectors and a boiler charging water storage tank [28]. 3.2. Underground Storage Underground thermal energy storage (UTES) is also a widely used storage technology, which makes use of the ground (e.g., the soil, sand, rocks, and clay) as a storage medium for both heat and cold storage. Means must be provided to add energy to and remove it from the medium. This is done by pumping heat transfer fluids (HTFs) through pipe arrays in the ground. The pipes may be vertical U-tubes inserted in wells (boreholes) that are spaced at appropriate intervals in the storage field or they may be horizontal pipes buried in trenches. The rates of charging and discharging are limited by the area of the pipe arrays and the rates of heat transfer through the ground surrounding the pipes. If the storage medium is porous, energy transport may occur by evaporation and condensation and by the movement of water through the medium, and a complete analysis of such a store must include consideration of both heat and mass transfer. These storage systems are usually not insulated, although insulation may be provided at the ground surface. Boreholes (ground heat exchangers) are also frequently used in combination with heat pumps where the ground heat exchanger extracts low-temperature heat from the soil. Aquifer storage is closely related to ground storage, except that the primary storage medium is water, which flows at low rates through the ground. Water is pumped out of and into the ground to heat it and extract energy from it. Water flow also provides a mechanism for heat exchange with the ground itself. As a practical matter, aquifers cannot be insulated. Only aquifers that have low natural flow rates through the storage field can be used. A further limitation may be in chemical reactions of heated water with the ground materials. Aquifers, as with ground storage, operate over smaller temperature ranges than water stores. Most applications deal with the storage of winter cold to be used for the cooling of large office buildings and industrial processes in the summer. Aquifer storage is discussed by Novo et al. [30], who mention that the heat capacity for aquifers is in the range of 30–40 kWh/m3 and the storage volume for 1 m3 water equivalents is 2–3 m3. It is emphasized that the relative heat losses get smaller for larger storage volumes, since the area susceptible to heat loss per volume decreases. A state-of-the-art review for aquifer storage for heating and cooling of buildings is presented by Paksoy et al. [31], who explained that, because of the ground conditions needed for aquifer storage, it is much less applicable than borehole storage, though aquifer storage has many advantages over borehole storage. The main advantage mentioned is the fact that tank [28].PDF Image | Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage
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