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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al 8. Industrial targets and techno-economic analysis 8.1. Industrial targets Ashish Rudola, Ruth Sayers and Jerry Barker Faradion Limited, The Innovation Centre, 217 Portobello, Sheffield S1 4DP, United Kingdom Status Faradion Limited, established in 2011, was the first non-aqueous Na-ion battery company in the world. Since then, several Na-ion companies have been founded, covering a wide range of sodium-based chemistries. Faradion’s technology utilises mixed-phase O3/P2-type Na–Mn–Ni–Ti–Mg layered oxide cathodes, hard carbon anodes, and non-aqueous electrolytes [284]. Other companies reliant on carbon-based anodes and non-aqueous electrolytes include the French company, Tiamat, whose cathodes are based on the polyanionic Na3V2(PO4)2F3 [285], the Chinese company HiNa Battery, which utilises O3-type Na–Cu–Fe–Mn layered oxide cathodes [286], and the Swedish company Altris AB, based on Prussian blue analogue (PBA) cathodes. In contrast, US-based Natron Energy has built its Na-ion technology around aqueous solvents and PBA-based cathodes and anodes [287]. From the above, it can be seen that there is already a diverse array of Na-ion chemistries available in the industry. This is important, as different markets/applications have different requirements and might require unique solutions – the battery of choice needs just the right combination of cost ($ kWh−1), energy density, stability/reliability, power rating, charge acceptance, and temperature performance. As such, figure 40 presents a Ragone plot covering several main market applications with their specific energy/power envelopes (gauged by the datasheets of existing battery technologies that are currently deployed in the market for these specific applications) [288, 289]. It should be stressed that these are just a few examples of applications—there are others with different performance requirements. We have also indicated the maximum performance of Na-ion cells from some industry players, as given by their datasheets or published reports [284, 285, 287]: for Tiamat and Natron, the values mentioned are correct as of mid-2018 and mid-2019, respectively, while for Faradion, values are accurate as of mid-2020. A Na-ion cell might be appropriate for utilisation for a particular application, as long as the application’s envelope lies within its energy/power capabilities (gauged by the area below its respective dotted lines in figure 40) and it can meet other requirements such as cycle life. It is evident that current Na-ion technology could be attractive for most applications, apart from some types of consumer electronics and long-range electric vehicles. Current and future challenges Referring to figure 40, it can be seen that different Na-ion chemistries are better suited for different applications. For example, Natron’s aqueous Na-ion chemistry has the lowest specific energy/power—this is expected, as aqueous electrolyte-based batteries cannot match the energy densities of their non-aqueous counterparts owing to the limited voltage window of water as an electrolyte solvent. Thus, Natron’s Na-ion systems would be ill-suited for higher-energy applications, such as electric vehicles. However, Natron batteries’ expected low cost, exceptional cycling stability, safety and efficiency would make them attractive for different ESS applications [287]. Tiamat’s use of fluorinated vanadium-based polyanionic cathodes delivers Na-ion chemistry with excellent power capabilities albeit at the expense of energy density and raw material handling and availability [285]. Polyanionic cathodes represent an attractive avenue for high power and durable Na-ion systems. The challenge is to base them on more Earth-abundant elements, such as Fe and Mn. Unfortunately, pure Fe/Mn-based polyanionic cathodes generally either demonstrate relatively low operating potentials which limit their specific energies, or rely on bulky anionic groups [290], which limit their tap densities and, in turn, volumetric energy densities [284]. On the anode side, hard carbon can be prepared from a variety of precursors, including low-cost options, and has an attractive combination of desirably low operating potentials and high capacity (current hard carbon capacities almost match those of graphite Li-ion anodes). Hence, it is unlikely to be displaced as the anode of choice for high-energy applications in the foreseeable future. Furthermore, an intense research focus on hard carbon has resulted in significant improvements, not only in its cycling stability and rate performance but also in its charge acceptance capabilities—these, along with excellent compatibility with high-flash-point electrolytes, confer a high degree of safety to Na-ion systems [284]. Faradion’s Na-ion cells currently deliver a good mix of energy and power densities with attractive costs, due, in large part, to cathodes devoid of costly and scarce elements, such as Co and V [284]. Table 2 illustrates how Faradion Na-ion cells compare with two types of state-of-the-art Li-ion cells: Li–Ni–Mn–Co oxide (NMC)//graphite and LiFePO4 (LFP) cathode//graphite chemistries. 74PDF Image | roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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