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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al 7.2. Applications and scale-up: manufacturing Stewart A M Dickson1,2 and John T S Irvine1,2 1 School of Chemistry, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom 2 The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RA, United Kingdom Status The manufacture of batteries is often overlooked at a research level, due to the importance of finding new, higher-energy electrode materials, and solving the challenges faced in cell chemistries at smaller scales. However, when producing large-format cells, its importance in achieving the optimal cell performance is paramount. As demand increases further, together with the growing applications of LIBs, the availability of manufacturing facilities has also increased. Europe has multiple ‘Gigafactories’ in the pipeline, with examples such as Northvolt, who are expected to reach 32 GWh by 2023. Similar or larger-scale factories in China and beyond are also in the pipeline, backed by larger companies such as Tesla. As noted by the Faraday Institution, eight ‘Gigafactories’ will be needed by 2040 to satisfy UK battery demands, which requires one to be established at least every two years from 2020 [274]. Projects such as those recently proposed by AMTE Power and Britishvolt are the start of promising large-scale manufacturing of LIBs within the UK, with the hope that this can complete the chain to take materials from powder to power, thus attracting end users of battery technology by shortening supply chains [275]. NIBs are beginning to reach a technology readiness which requires large-scale production, as demonstrated by Faradion, with recent orders from Australia and India [276]. NIBs will see use in large, decentralised power applications, and small-scale deployments will be required to assist in load balancing from intermittent-power farms, such as wind and solar [277]. Factories can switch between lithium and sodium chemistries, due to their ‘drop-in’ nature, as long as the technologies remain similar enough in their production (figure 38). This helps to reduce barriers to entry and initial costs, as the creation of new facilities is not required; however, the gap between commercial and laboratory technologies still needs to be bridged to facilitate material advances and their application in larger cells. Additionally, research institutions often lack access to facilities which can help to realise materials at larger scales. By improving this connection, especially through links between industry and academia, it is hoped that an acceleration of research towards manufacturing readiness can be achieved. Current and future challenges Although some good parallels can be drawn from LIB manufacture, there are still limitations to how this can be applied to NIBs, due to differences in the materials used. When changing any physical property of a material, such as particle size, crystal structure, morphology etc., this also alters the processing parameters, thus impacting electrochemical performance. Similarly, changing the processing procedures of an electrode material, for example, slurry preparation or electrode modifications, can also influence both its structure and its maximum performance (figure 39) [278]. Therefore, every material must be treated differently to achieve this fine balance between every parameter. Most of the challenges within manufacture lie at a materials level. Complex multi-step procedures can be used to produce grams of material for research purposes. However, these techniques may not be feasible when producing the kilogram amounts required for larger cells. Material morphologies, such as the creation of high-surface-area particles, will assist with electrochemical performance. Additionally, some layered sodium oxides of interest are extremely sensitive to air and moisture, which can make handling of large quantities more complex, and imposes additional requirements such as additives in slurries to improve their longevity. It is possible to modify these materials to improve their stability in air or to reduce the sodium content, but this can be detrimental to electrochemical performance [279]. Electrode slurries at the coin-cell level also have standardised formulations; little attention is paid to metrology and dry powder mixing, and they include large amounts of binder and carbon to overcome material limitations, such as poor conductivity. Reducing these amounts to increase the energy density of cells is vital at large scales, as commercial cells sometimes reach up to 98 wt.% active material. However, such changes require specific testing and optimisation of every electrode slurry. After coating, the influence of drying and the application of calendering as a technique to improve electrode density and adherence are also not routinely considered within the research environment. These steps also require individual tailoring to maximise electrochemical performance without negatively impacting electrode structure. Although materials and processing are key to cell performance, other considerations, such as electrode balancing and geometry, tab placement, and safety aspects related to long-term storage and long-term cycling which are not routinely studied at smaller scales also become relevant. Due to the infancy of NIB technology, little research exists for many of these other areas, though it is fortunate that many of these can 71PDF Image | roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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