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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al quartz-crystal microbalances (EQCMs), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and vibrational spectroscopies. However, innovative methods and advanced characterisation techniques are required to gain a deep understanding of the highly soluble SEI in NIBs. Electrochemical ‘pausing testing’ can be used to investigate dissolution [197, 198], whereby a cell is switched to its open-circuit voltage (OCV) for a fixed duration after a period of cycling to determine how much capacity is lost through self-discharge (figure 24). Such experiments have shown that the capacity loss is higher in NIBs than in LIBs. PES is very sensitive to surfaces and chemicals and is one of the techniques most commonly used to study SEI layers in all kinds of battery systems. Synchrotron hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) measurements can be used to probe to a depth of 50 nm and have shown that the SEI thickness decreases with increasing pause durations (figure 24) [197, 198]. HAXPES measurements with large probing depths may allow for the elimination of electrode washing, an issue already discussed, although other parameters, including the pre-disassembly relaxation time, should also be considered. The future development of in situ and operando PES techniques may enable the direct measurement of SEI layer formation at an electrode during cycling. While infrared spectroscopic (FT-IR) analysis of the electrolyte composition from cycled cells has already been demonstrated [195], it is underutilised for detecting soluble SEI species. Complementary techniques, such as gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) methods may also provide valuable insights. However, the extraction of electrolytes from cycled cells and data interpretation can present challenges. The development of novel electrolyte components (salts and solvents) will almost certainly result in the formation of more stable SEIs and improved battery performance. However, given such development, one must bear in mind that cost-effective, non-toxic, and safe electrolytes will be required for the commercialisation of NIBs. Concluding remarks While relatively little is known about SEIs in NIBs and their formation mechanisms, particularly compared to their lithium counterparts, there is a growing body of knowledge on the topic as a result of increasing interest over recent years. Progress is inhibited, though, by the challenges posed by their complex nature. Their high solubility compared to the SEIs in LIBs causes difficulties in determining their composition and in preparing samples for ex situ characterisation. Furthermore, the lack of a suitably stable reference electrode and the issues of high resistance and crosstalk when employing sodium metal in half cells lead to complications in assessing the performance of materials. Novel electrolyte formulations will advance NIB technology towards commercialisation. However, a robust comprehension of the SEI achieved through the use of advanced characterisation techniques and innovative electrochemical testing methods will allow for the targeted design of electrolytes and a stable SEI. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Å Forsk Foundation via Grant No. 19-638, by the Swedish Energy Agency via Project Number 48198-1 and by S T and U P for Energy. 49PDF Image | roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)