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Membranes 2022, 12, 990 7 of 10 Membranes 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW two hours of operation, while the OCV values showed an almost constant trend for the no 8 of 10 study by Maduell et al. revealed that increasing the dialyzer area from 1 m2 to 1.4 m2 and 1.8 m2 did not translate into urea removal at the same magnitude [27]. The change in the urea removal capacity was just 1% and 3% for 1.4 and 1.8 m2, respectively. Moreover, the authors also claimed that the main factors limiting the diffusion in their case were the blood flow rate and solute concentration. A similar trend can also be seen in the current study. For biologically compatible processes, it is necessary to have a laminar flow. Therefore, the Reynolds number for each flow rate case was calculated. For the largest flow rate (100 mL/min), the Reynolds number was calculated as ~90, which is well within the lami- nar flow regime [28]. Moreover, the Reynolds number of the shell-side fluids was observed to be highly effective on mass transfer coefficients for hollow-fiber membrane cartridges, as a reported study by Satoru et al. revealed that solute mass transfer coefficients were found to be exponentially increased related to dialysate Reynolds number [29]. Figure 2a shows the stagnant case where the pick-up solution was loaded, and transport of the electrolytes was observed. Compared to the dynamic runs, the pick-up was an order of magnitude lower for all concentration cases, with 20-fiber units shown to have slightly higher transport rates. It has been previously shown that the increase in the blood flow rate inversely influences diffusive solute transport in the blood flow concentration [30]. However, the rate of salt transport was found to be increasing with a decreasing rate, which could be related to the equilibration of the acceptor solution by the cartridge. 3.2. Reverse Electrodialysis Operation with Salt Cartridge Increasing the molar concentration of the concentrate feed stream to the RED is highly effective in increasing the power density of the stack, as previously published studies reported that a 10-fold increase from 0.5 to 5 M in the concentrate stream yields a 4-fold boost in the PD [31]. Thus, the RED biopower cell was operated with and without the integration of the salt-pick-up cartridge, and the corresponding open circuit voltage (OCV) values that were recorded around the power cell were plotted in Figure 3. As can be seen, almost a three-fold increase in the OCV was recorded in the presence of the cartridge after Figure 3. Open circuit voltage (OCV) values recorded for RED biopower cell operations with and Figure 3. Open circuit voltage (OCV) values recorded for RED biopower cell operations with and cartridge operation. When the device was operated for 24 h continuously the change in the OCV was within the range of values observed at the 2 h point showing that it was stable both with and without the cartridge. withoutthesaltcartridge. N=3for0–2handn=1for24h. without the salt cartridge. N = 3 for 0–2 h and n = 1 for 24 h. The representative power demand of a commercial standard pacemaker was previ- ously given in the study by Haeberlin et al. [33]. In the mentioned study, it was concluded that the average demand for a commercialized pacemaker was around 40 μW/cm2. For a membrane area of 27 mm2 and dilute and concentrate channel heights of 0.5 mm, the max-PDF Image | Integrated Salt Cartridge-Reverse Electrodialysis
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