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Appendix I. Cultural Resource Regional Ethnohistory I-40 Late Archaic peoples expanded further into the intermontane basin interiors as well as the foothills and mountains of the western Great Plains during the Late Archaic. This is indicated by fire pits, which at some sites can cover hectares and at others just a single pit will be found. The pits, often characterized by perimeters of red oxidized clay due to heat exposure or stone linings, are associated with other features and artifacts such as boiling pits, grinding stones, and flake tools. Although some of these were most certainly used for cooking, some were also probably used for a source of heat within structures. Prehistoric lakeshores created by retreating glaciers were often used for Archaic occupations. Many of these have been affected by modern efforts for water storage. These Archaic lifeways in the Northwestern and western Central Great Plains regions, concentrating on vegetal resources, continued into the Late Prehistoric period, while in other more “plainslike” environments economies were oriented more toward bison hunting (Frison 2001). Stone rings, one of the most characteristic artifacts of the Late Prehistoric period on the Northwest Great Plains, first began to occur in large quantities during the Late Archaic. Raised topographic features in the interior basins and plains as well as in the foothills are the most sensitive for these kinds of sites, including butte tops, barren ridges, minor topographic rises, and stream terraces, particularly cobble-filled terraces. The rings occur singly or in clusters and vary in diameter. Association with cultural refuse is rare, making dating difficult in some cases (Frison 2001). Functions attributed to these rings range from structure bases, such as tepee rings, to ceremonial, such as medicine wheels (Frison 2001; Neusius and Gross 2007). Other features attributed to the Late Archaic, but are also difficult to date include petroglyphs, pictographs, and stone cairns and lines (Frison 2001). Late Prehistoric Period: Dependence upon bison hunting, pottery making, and use of the bow and arrow combine to characterize the Late Prehistoric Period. In general, however the adaptive strategies of previous times continued into the Late Prehistoric. This period occurred concurrently with the Great Plains Woodland and Great Plains Village Periods of the majority of the Great Plains cultural region to the east of the project area. Some of the historically documented Great Plains tribes can be documented by the archaeology of the region during this time (Neusius and Gross 2007). Historic Initial European contact with Great Plains tribes occurred first in the Southern and Central Great Plains. The Great Plains regions of the project area continued to support mobile bison hunters while further east several migrations and relocations occurred creating a tangled history of movement in those areas. Such movements represent the fluidity of the Great Plains Native American cultural geography during the Historic Period (Neusius and Gross 2007). Draft PEIS for Geothermal Leasing in the Western US May 2008PDF Image | STATE OF THE TRIBAL LANDS FOR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
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