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In summary The MAP has been successful in stimulating the solar thermal heat market such that the German market is now the largest in Europe and the second largest worldwide (Section 3). Annual fluctuation in available funding, causing insecurity in the reliability of the fund, has reflected in fluctuations in application rates. The inability of the available funding to assure financing to all applicants may have restricted the growth of the market. This exemplifies the difficulty in providing appropriate levels of funds in annual government budgets. The MAP was also criticized for inadequately communicating the availability of funding to potential investors, being publicized primarily through the solar thermal industry, associations, and installers. Although the MAP provided around only 15% of investment costs, this subsidy to help reduce the cost gap between conventional heating was sufficient to catalyse development of the market. In addition, simplifying the administrative process and implementing a well-designed, carrot-based, government funded policy mechanism supported the development. However, it is apparent that stop-&-go type policies discourage long-term investment and disrupt market development. Reliable, long-term policies are necessary to instil ongoing confidence by investors. Biomass: Swedish tax incentives Substantial energy taxes have been employed in Sweden since 1973 when the first tax was levied on oil following the first oil crisis. Through the 1980s there was a reduction in oil consumption and an accompanying increase in the use of coal, electricity and biomass, to a limited extent, as a result. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur taxes on fossil fuels were introduced in 1991 as part of an energy tax reform to target environmental objectives15. In 2006 CO tax levels were approximately €100/t 2 CO2, being around 250% higher than when the policy was first introduced. These high taxes have had significant repercussions on the development of biomass because when used in district heating systems, it is exempt from the combination of oil, CO2, and sulphur taxes. The Energy Tax Exemption for Biomass has created a cost competitive advantage such that in district heating systems biomass- based heat can be produced at a much lower cost than heat produced from fossil fuels (Johannson et al., 2002). Biomass has become less expensive than coal as a heating source from 1991 as a result of these legislative incentives (Ericsson et al., 2004). To maintain the competitiveness of Swedish industry, exemption from the electricity tax and reduction in environmental taxes were granted. The levels of these tax reductions have fluctuated over the lifetime of the energy taxes (Johannson et al., 2002). A CO2 tax reduction of 25% (€20/ton CO2) was granted to the industrial and manufacturing sectors in 1993 but for industry it was increased to 50% in 1997 and to 70% in 2002. The exemption was extended in 2000 to include the agriculture, forestry, and aquaculture sectors. As a result of these exemptions biomass heat is not as cost competitive for industry as heat produced from fossil fuels. These tax exemptions for industry have thereby dampened the effect of the tax exemption for biomass, especially for use by industry. For CHP plants which feed into district heating systems, a full CO2 tax and 50% energy tax is imposed on fossil fuels. Energy taxes have been increased incrementally with increases in the CO2 tax levied in 1996, 1997, and 2001. In the spring of 2000, a total of €3.3 billion16 of tax revenue was shifted from employment (taxing the good) to energy use (taxing the bad) over a ten year period. Energy and environmental taxes were increased, offsetting a corresponding reduction in taxes on employment (SEA, 2006). The revenue from energy taxes since 1993 has totalled €53.5 billion. CO2 taxes have generated €25.7 billion since 1993 and sulphur taxes have generated €219 million since 1993 (Statistics Sweden, 2007). 15. A charge was also employed on emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in 1992. Biomass was not exempted from the NOx charges but only negligible effects result so they are not discussed in detail. In addition, taxes have also been employed on electricity consumption. 16. SEK 30 billion. Currency exchange rate based on average trade value for 2006. 1 SEK = €0.11. 83PDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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