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3 OPPORTUNITIES-BARRIERS-PATHWAYS FOR RECOVERY these technologies is limited by the nature of the industrial process to re-use heat. Heat pipes, conventional heat exchangers, and more advanced, higher-efficiency heat exchangers (e.g., microtechnology-based heat exchangers) could recover process waste heat. Solid-state devices are gaining attention as methods to convert thermal gradients to electricity. Thermoelectric and thermionic technologies are examples of these advancing technologies, which are largely based on semi-conductor materials. Appendix D provides a comprehensive description of these technologies, as well as several other technologies that might be deployed to recover thermal emissions from industrial processes. There are other novel and experimental technologies that are being developed to convert thermal gradients into electricity. One example is piezoelectic power generators, which are being developed by Washington State University [36]. This system is based on MEMS technology. It uses a multilayer system to oscillate a thin film of piezoelectric material in the presence of a thermal gradient across the multi-layer system. This emerging technology appears to be capable of recovering low-grade thermal energy at higher efficiencies than other conventional solid-state devices, such as thermoelectrics. However, additional manufacturing process development will likely be required prior to introducing this technology to industrial applications. Potential Treatment Options for CO2 As discussed earlier, CO2 is the main greenhouse gas emission from the various indus tries addressed in this report. While the heat of combustion for CO2 is 0, it can be effect ively used as feedstock for various petrochemicals and for fuel generation, as described in this section. Additional details for CO2 utilization are given in Appendix A. Chunshan Song [27] developed a new process known as tri-reforming for converting and using of CO2 in flue gas from power plants (http://pubs.acs.org/isubscribe/journals/ cinnov/ 31/i01/html/01song.html). This technique can also be used in any process that emits significant amounts of CO2. CO2 is an important source of carbon for fuels and chemical feedstocks, and can be separated from gas mixtures by energy-intensive processes such as absorption, adsorp tion, or membrane separation. Tri-reforming is a 3-step reaction that can cost-effectively produce synthesis gas. While this does not directly result in energy recovery, it does fall within the scope of this work in terms of providing a pathway for recovery and product ively using emitted CO2, especially if the emission also contains CH4. The reactions involved are the following: CH4 + CO2 → 2CO + 2H2 CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 CH4 + 1/2O2 → CO + 2H2 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O {ΔH = 247.3 kJ/mol} (1) {ΔH = 206.3 kJ/mol} (2) {ΔH = -35.6 kJ/mol} (3) {ΔH = -880 kJ/mol} (4) 74PDF Image | Analysis for Recovering Energy from Industrial Waste Heat
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