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Chapter 4 see case a of fig. 4.2a, is the most adopted concept in commercial CSP plants. In this case, sensible heat is accumulated into a liquid, which can be thermal oil and/or molten salt [29]; in so-called direct systems the heat transfer fluid serves also as storage medium, while in indirect systems a separated system is used to store thermal energy, see fig. 4.2b. The Spanish Andasol solar power plants, which are in operation since 2009, are representative of the state-of-the-art for technology based on parabolic troughs [30]. They adopt an indirect ther- mal storage system whereby thermal oil transfers the energy collected from the solar field to molten salt contained in two tanks, see fig. 4.2b; such layout, involving multiple subsystems with different working fluids, is arguably unfeasible for small-scale solar power plants due to complexity and cost. Other concepts, see cases b, c, and d in fig. 4.2a, are based on the storage of energy in the working fluid itself, and have been implemented in steam power plants. Thermal storage can be used to make pre-heated feed water available to the steam generator (b), mainly for peaking purposes, in power plants with regenerative feed-water heating [31]. The storage vessel can also supply the turbine with steam in saturated or superheated state, at both live-steam (c) or medium/low pressure (d) conditions. Also in these cases both indirect and direct system concepts can be implemented. Indirect systems for working fluid storage are extensively investigated as TES for direct steam generation (DSG) power plants [28]. Direct systems have been successfully used for decades, and also recently built CSP plants adopt this TES configuration. A direct system for the accumulation of working fluid is often called steam accumulator [27, 29]. The main advantage of steam accumu- lators is that they are simpler than indirect systems, in that no intermediate fluid loop and the related heat exchangers are needed; §4.4 treats in detail these concepts. The evaluation of the profitability of energy systems is a complicated task, involving a number of considerations from different domains. Among the main elements of the evaluation one needs to consider the projected investment cost and efficiency of the complete system, possible environmen- tal hazards, operation strategy, O&M cost, and the local regulatory framework, i.e., tariffs and/or incentives [32]. In particular, when newly proposed concepts are considered, the uncertainty related to equipment costs has a large impact on the reliability of such evaluation [33]. Also for this rea- son, an exhaustive economic evaluation is beyond the scope of the present work, which in turn is aimed at the thermodynamic and technical assessment of a new concept for thermal energy storage suitable for small solar-powered ORC plants. The analysis identifies and discusses the factors af- fecting the performance and the projected costs of the considered systems, such as their efficiency, the temperature and pressure levels in the storage system, the volumetric expansion ratio across the turbine, and the pressure level in the condenser. The typical thermodynamic performance parameters for a TES system integrated into a thermal power plant are 1. the storage density ρex [kWhM m−3], which is useful to evaluate the size of the storage unit ST and, thus, to give a first estimate of its cost. Since thermal energy is stored for subsequent conversion into work, density of available energy (exergy) has to be considered [34]. The parameter EEED (Equivalent Electrical Energy Density [kWhE m−3]), accounting for the ST subsequent conversion into electricity, is also introduced here. This value quantifies the equivalent electrical energy stored as thermal energy into one cubic meter of liquid at the storage conditions. For a given size of the storage in terms of equivalent hours of storage heq,st , the value of the EEED of a certain TES concept allows for a preliminary estimation of the storage volume and of the required mass of fluid. 2. The turnaround efficiency ξturn, which accounts for exergy losses along the entire charge- standstill-discharge cycle, and depends both on design and on operational parameters. ξturn is typically chosen as the objective variable for the thermodynamic optimization of a storage 94PDF Image | New Concepts FOR Organic Rankine Cycle Power Systems
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