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Typical ranges for total installed costs by technology are presented in Figure 2.2. The total installed costs of onshore wind projects in the major OECD markets in 2011 were between USD 1 750 and USD 2 200/kW, but some projects in the United States were as low as USD 1 500/kW (Wiser and Bollinger, 2012). Costs in 2012 are trending lower, with average costs in the United States in the first half of 2012 around USD 1 750/kW. The total installed capital costs are lower in China and India, mainly due to lower wind turbine prices (USD 630/kW for Chinese turbines in 2012), and range between USD 925 and USD 1 470/kW. Offshore wind farms are significantly more capital‐intensive, with average costs of between USD 4 000 and USD 4 500/kW due to the higher costs of installation offshore, grid connection from onshore to the wind farm, and higher costs for equipment designed to cope with harsh marine environments. 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 FIGURE 2.2: TYPICAL CAPITAL COST RANGES FOR RENEWABLE POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES, 2012 SOURCE: IRENA RENEWABLE COST DATABASE. The total installed cost of PV systems varies widely by sub‐sector (i.e. residential rooftop, commercial rooftop, ground‐mounted utility‐scale), country, and even regions or states within a country. These variations reflect the maturity of domestic markets, local labour and manufacturing costs, incentive levels and structures, and a range of other factors. Total installed costs have been falling rapidly in the most competitive markets, driven by falling module prices and competitive pressures to reduce BoS costs. Ground‐mounted utility‐scale systems in India, Germany and China were estimated to have the lowest average total installed costs of USD 1 720/kW, USD 2 008/kW and USD 2 160/kW respectively (Photon Consulting, 2012) in 2012. At an average of around USD 2 200/kW for c‐Si systems, Germany has the lowest PV system costs in the small‐scale residential market (BSW, 2012). In comparison, the estimated average installed cost in 2012 for residential systems in China, California and Italy were USD 3 100/kW, USD 3 300/kW and 3 400/kW respectively (Photon Consulting, 2012). Average capacity factors for solar PV are typically between 0.13 and 0.25, but the recent cost reductions mean that solar PV grid‐parity with residential and commercial tariffs is increasingly the norm. 18 Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview 2011 USD/kW Wind onshore China/India Wind onshore OECD Wind offshore Solar PV OECD Solar PV non-OECD CSP PT (no storage) OECD CSP PT (6 h storage) OECD CSP ST (6-15 h storage) OECD CSP PT (no storage) non-OECD Biomass-stoker Biomass-BFB/CFB Biomass-gasification Biomass-AD Biomass-co-firing Biomass-CHP Agriculture residues non-OECD Hydro-large Hydro-small Hydro-upgrade GeothermalPDF Image | International Renewable Energy Agency
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