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Trends, Challenges and Opportunities It has been estimated that by 2030, ten per cent of the world’s agricultural and forestry residues could cater roughly 50 per cent of global biofuel demand (IEA 2010b). The IEA notes that in developing countries such as Cameroon and Tanzania there is a high potential for using residues from agriculture and forestry for the production of second-generation biofuels; the major limiting factors are scattered smallholders that complicate logistics, limited financing, poor infrastructure, and a shortage of skilled labour. To help overcome these limitations, foreign direct investments can play a role in financing the production and infrastructure of second-generation biofuels (IEA 2010b). Another trade opportunity in the renewable energy sector is the export of sustainably sourced biomass for use as a fuel. For more information on this trade opportunity, see the Forests chapter of this report. 6.4.4 Cross-border provision of renewable energy services The development and deployment of renewable and energy efficiency technologies depend on a wide range of services, including energy and construction consultancy services. These and other services are traded internationally. In addition, significant foreign direct investment is channeled into the energy services sector (Glachant 2013). For more information on the services aspect of renewable energy, see the section on trade in environmental goods and services in the Introduction and the Manufacturing chapter. 6.4.5 Exporting carbon credits on international markets Under certain circumstances, renewable energy projects that reduce or avoid emissions relative to a BAU baseline can have this emissions differential securitised into carbon credits. These can be sold to governments or companies in industrialised countries and consequently used by them for compliance with emissions reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol or under domestic emissions trading schemes such as the EU’s cap and trade mechanism, the Emissions Trading System (ETS). Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, emission-reduction projects in developing countries are able to earn carbon credits, which once accepted under the UNFCCC’s approval mechanisms, are termed certified emission reductions (CERs). Each CER is equivalent to one tonne of CO2. CERs can be traded and sold, and used by industrialised countries to meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol. According to the World Bank, the carbon market could earn poorer nations more than US$ 25 billion every year (Nijuru 2009). However, given the fall in prices for CERs in 2011-12, and a lack of clear future demand for such credits, the opportunity may be smaller than those earlier predictions. Developing countries can, therefore, export GHG reductions generated in their countries to developed countries. In particular, the deployment of renewable energy technologies (or tree planting6) opens new export opportunities and revenue streams as developing countries become eligible for carbon crediting on international carbon markets. The Gold Standard is a key example of a standard for carbon offsets.7 Companies that sell clean cooking stoves, domestic biogas and green charcoal/biochar8 can earn credits, as can those involved with small-scale hydroelectricity, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), solar water heaters and water purification and industrial companies in the cement, biodiesel and sugar sectors. Some firms are already taking advantage of these opportunities. The Kenyan firm East African Portland Cement, for example, began a project in 2010 that would enable it to sell CERs for US$ 1.7 million annually. Another example of a Kenyan sugar company that is making use of exporting CERs is described in Box 15. 6. See the Forests chapter of this report. 7. For further information, see http://www.cdmgoldstandard.org/. 8. For information on biochar see Carbon Gold (n.d.), The Telegraph (2013). 241 Renewable EnergyPDF Image | Renewable Energy
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