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Geothermal Energy Chapter 4 Executive Summary Geothermal energy has the potential to provide long-term, secure base-load energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- sions reductions. Accessible geothermal energy from the Earth’s interior supplies heat for direct use and to generate electric energy. Climate change is not expected to have any major impacts on the effectiveness of geothermal energy utilization, but the widespread deployment of geothermal energy could play a meaningful role in mitigating climate change. In electricity applications, the commercialization and use of engineered (or enhanced) geothermal systems (EGS) may play a central role in establishing the size of the contribution of geothermal energy to long-term GHG emis- sions reductions. The natural replenishment of heat from earth processes and modern reservoir management techniques enable the sustainable use of geothermal energy as a low-emission, renewable resource. With appropriate resource management, the tapped heat from an active reservoir is continuously restored by natural heat production, conduction and convection from surrounding hotter regions, and the extracted geothermal fluids are replenished by natural recharge and by injection of the depleted (cooled) fluids. Global geothermal technical potential is comparable to global primary energy supply in 2008. For electric- ity generation, the technical potential of geothermal energy is estimated to be between 118 EJ/yr (to 3 km depth) and 1,109 EJ/yr (to 10 km depth). For direct thermal uses, the technical potential is estimated to range from 10 to 312 EJ/yr. The heat extracted to achieve these technical potentials can be fully or partially replenished over the long term by the continental terrestrial heat flow of 315 EJ/yr at an average flux of 65 mW/m2. Thus, technical potential is not likely to be a barrier to geothermal deployment (electricity and direct uses) on a global basis. Whether or not the geothermal tech- nical potential will be a limiting factor on a regional basis depends on the availability of EGS technology. There are different geothermal technologies with distinct levels of maturity. Geothermal energy is currently extracted using wells or other means that produce hot fluids from: a) hydrothermal reservoirs with naturally high permeability; and b) EGS-type reservoirs with artificial fluid pathways. The technology for electricity generation from hydrothermal reservoirs is mature and reliable, and has been operating for more than 100 years. Technologies for direct heating using geothermal heat pumps (GHP) for district heating and for other applications are also mature. Technologies for EGS are in the demonstration stage. Direct use provides heating and cooling for buildings including district heating, fish ponds, greenhouses, bathing, wellness and swimming pools, water purification/desalination and industrial and process heat for agricultural products and mineral drying. Geothermal resources have been commercially used for more than a century. Geothermal energy is currently used for base load electric generation in 24 countries, with an estimated 67.2 TWh/yr (0.24 EJ/yr) of supply provided in 2008 at a global average capacity factor of 74.5%; newer geothermal installations often achieve capacity factors above 90%. Geothermal energy serves more than 10% of the electricity demand in 6 countries and is used directly for heating and cooling in 78 countries, generating 121.7 TWh/yr (0.44 EJ/yr) of thermal energy in 2008, with GHP applications hav- ing the widest market penetration. Another source estimates global geothermal energy supply at 0.41 EJ/yr in 2008. Environmental and social impacts from geothermal use are site and technology specific and largely man- ageable. Overall, geothermal technologies are environmentally advantageous because there is no combustion process emitting carbon dioxide (CO2), with the only direct emissions coming from the underground fluids in the reservoir. Historically, direct CO2 emissions have been high in some instances with the full range spanning from close to 0 to 740 g CO2/kWhe depending on technology design and composition of the geothermal fluid in the underground reservoir. Direct CO2 emissions for direct use applications are negligible and EGS power plants are likely to be designed with zero direct emissions. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies estimate that full lifecycle CO2-equivalent emissions for geo- thermal energy technologies are less than 50 g CO2eq/kWhe for flash steam geothermal power plants, less than 80 g CO2eq/kWhe for projected EGS power plants, and between 14 and 202 g CO2eq/kWhth for district heating systems and GHP. Local hazards arising from natural phenomena, such as micro-earthquakes, may be influenced by the operation of geothermal fields. Induced seismic events have not been large enough to lead to human injury or relevant property 404PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 4
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