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Geothermal Energy—Clean Power From the Earth’s Heat� 11 ��������� �������� ������ ������� �������� ������� ����������� ����� ����� ��������� �������� ������ ������� �������� ������� ���� ��������� ����������� ����� ��������� ����� ��������� ������ ��������� �������� ������ ������� �������� ������� ����������� ����� ����� Diagram showing how electricity is generated from a hot-water hydrothermal system. The part of the hydrothermal water that flashes to steam is separated and used to drive a turbine generator. Wastewater from separator and condenser is injected back into the subsurface to help extend the useful life of the hydrothermal system. Diagram showing how electricity is gen- erated from a vapor-dominated hydrother- mal system. Steam is used directly from wells to drive a turbine generator. Waste- water from the condenser is injected back into the subsurface to help extend the useful life of the hydrothermal system. Diagram showing how electricity is generated from a moderate-temperature hydrothermal system using a “binary” sys- tem. The geothermal water is used to boil a second fluid (isobutane in this example) whose vapor then drives a turbine genera- tor. The wastewater is injected back into the subsurface to help extend the useful life of the hydrothermal system technologies must be developed to extract the thermal energy associated with the dry geothermal environments. Electrical-Grade Systems: Power Generation As the name implies, an electrical-grade hydrothermal system is one that can generate electricity by means of driving a turbine with geothermal fluids. At present, only high- and moderate-temperature hydrothermal systems can be so used. The temperature that separates electrical-grade from cooler hydrothermal systems changes with technology, but it falls within the 100 to 150°C range. There are three types of electri- cal-grade hydrothermal systems: hot-water, vapor-dominated, and moderate-temperature water (binary) systems. Hot-water hydrothermal systems of about 200°C or more are capable of producing steam at pressures sufficient to drive turbine generators. These systems are in porous and perme- able rock saturated with water, which partly boils to steam when it rises up production wells. This steam is routed to a turbine generator to produce electricity. A prime example of a hot-water system is the geothermal field at Coso in south- central California. Less commonly, the pore spaces of rocks of a high-tem- perature hydrothermal system are saturated with steam, rather than liquid water; such systems are called vapor-dominated. The origin of these systems requires a combination of a potent heat source and a restricted source of water recharge. In these situations, only steam is produced through the wells, and this steam can be routed directly into turbine generators. Because the vapor-dominated systems do not require the separation of steam from water, the energy they contain is relatively simple and efficient to harness; accordingly, such systems are most desirable for electrical power production. Like most highly sought after commodities, vapor-dominated systems are rare compared with their valuable but less-simple-to-develop coun- terparts, the hot-water systems. The largest vapor-dominated system developed in the world is at The Geysers in northern California. Moderate-temperature hydrothermal systems are inca- pable of producing steam at high enough pressure to directly drive a turbine generator. They are, however, hot enough to produce a high-pressure vapor through heat transfer to a sec- ond “working” fluid, which in turn drives a turbine generator. The power-generation technique that transfers the geothermal heat to another fluid (for example, isobutane), whose boiling temperature is lower than that of water, is called a binary-cycle, or simply, a binary system. A binary system that produces geo- thermal electricity is in operation near Mammoth Lakes, east ���������� ��������� ���������� ��������� ���������� ��������� ���� ��������� ��������� ��������� ���������PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 1249 USGS
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