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10 Geothermal Energy—Clean Power From the Earth’s Heat Geothermal Environments and Energy Potential Thermal energy is contained in a broad range of geother- mal environments, and these commonly are classified by tem- perature and amount of fluid—water and (or) steam—avail- able for carrying the energy to the Earth’s surface. The magma environment is the highest temperature and a relatively water- poor part of this classification. Magmas range in temperature from about 650 to 1,300°C, depending on chemical composi- tion. For comparison, common steel melts at about 1,500°C. Even the most water-rich magmas contain no more than a few weight percent of water, an amount insufficient and unavail- able for geothermal use. These bodies of magma in the crust are termed “dry” and are the ultimate sources of heat for most other geothermal environments. With decreasing temperature, the magma environment grades into what is called the hot-dry-rock environment. This is characterized by hot, solid rock that contains little or no available water because it has few pore spaces or fractures to store (the open space within a rock is called porosity) and transmit water (the capacity of a porous rock to transmit fluid is called its permeability). With the increasing presence of water, the hot-dry-rock environment gives way to a broad category of fluid-saturated rocks with variable porosity, per- meability, and temperature. Within this category are relatively high-temperature rock, saturated either with steam or liquid water or a mixture of both, and rocks saturated only with water at increasingly lower temperatures. Geothermal environments through which available water circulates freely are called hydrothermal-convection, or simply, hydrothermal systems. In nature, the various geothermal-energy environments commonly occur in close proximity, separated by boundaries that can be either relatively abrupt or gradual. For example, a body of magma in the Earth’s crust is enveloped by hot, solid rock whose temperature decreases outward from the magma. ����������� ����� �� ����� With or without an associated body of magma, hot dry rock and fluid-saturated, high-temperature rock environments generally coexist within a well-defined, anomalously hot part of the Earth’s crust, the distinction between them being in the amount of available fluid and permeability. In contrast, moder- ate- to normal-temperature hydrothermal systems may occur in isolation, if circulating water is heated solely by flowing through warm crustal rocks, without input from an adjacent, high-temperature magmatic heat source. Determining whether or not heat can be extracted from a particular geothermal environment is critically dependent on depth. The pertinent question is whether the geothermal target is within economically drillable depths, roughly 4 kilome- ters or less with current technology. Each of the geothermal environments can occur over a range of depths, depending upon the geologic characteristics of a given geographic site. For example, most magma bodies in the Earth’s crust are estimated to lie between the depths of 5 and 10 kilometers, although some bodies of molten rock pond in craters at the Earth’s surface during volcanic eruptions and cool and solidify there under their own thin but growing crust. Exploitable geothermal energy in hydrothermal systems with temperatures around 250°C may be discovered at depths from one to several kilometers, depending upon the local geothermal gradient and the vigor of upward flow of hot fluids. For optimum exploita- tion, a major challenge is to locate geothermal environments of high temperature at shallow depth. Hydrothermal Systems Geothermal potential also is highly dependent on rock porosity and permeability. For a given reservoir temperature, the greater the porosity and permeability of a hydrothermal system, the greater its production of available water and thus energy yield. With current and foreseeable technologies, the hydrothermal environment is the only commercially exploit- able form of geothermal energy for generating electricity. New Different types of geothermal envi- ronments in the Earth’s upper crust. Generally, temperature increases with depth, but the depth line is dashed to indicate that the rate of temperature increase varies within the crust. “Available” refers to water and steam in rocks that can be tapped by a well and produced at the Earth’s surface. High- and moderate-temperature rocks with considerable available water and (or) steam are the only geothermal environments that can currently be developed to generate electricity. ��� ���� ������������������ ��������� ���� ���� ��� ���� ���� ��������� ���� ��� ��� ���� �������������������� ��������� ���� ���������������� ��������������� ���� ���������������� ��������������� ���� ����� ����� �����������PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 1249 USGS
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