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change and sensible heat materials have entered the demonstration phase as an energy storage application for large-scale CSP.89 In large-scale wind generation, a number of energy storage techniques have been applied including pumped hydroelectric and compressed air systems. Researchers also are experimenting with flywheel systems for wind power applications.90 For small residential and commercial solar and wind energy storage, deep cycle lead acid batteries are commonly used. Storage for Transportation Dr. Peter Hall, Professor of Chemical and Process Engineering at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, Scotland, calls the modern transportation sector a “battle-ground for competing technologies, [including] conventional liquid fossil fuels with improved efficiency through hybridization, fuel cells and hydrogen, electrochemical (battery and superconductor), and bio-derived liquid fuels.”91 Because no clear victor has emerged from the available technologies, new energy storage solutions have been developed simultaneously for vehicles powered by non-liquid stored fuels: the electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles. Electric Vehicles – Implementing Battery and Ultracapacitor Innovation Hybrid vehicles are the first stage in the transition to pure plug-in electric vehicles. Hybrids combine conventional vehicle technologies with new battery technology to achieve better fuel efficiency and lower emissions. The conventional element powering hybrid vehicles is the traditional lead-acid battery. The lead acid batteries included in all conventional vehicles are used to achieve ignition and power electrical appliances. Hybrid vehicles employ two additional technologies: the propulsion battery and the ultracapacitor. Propulsion batteries made of nickel-metal-hydride battery packs allow regenerative charging in hybrid vehicles.92 In regenerative charging, the electric motor uses energy captured during braking to recharge the nickel-metal-hydride battery, which then supplements power from the automobile’s internal combustion engine. Ultracapacitors are energy storage units used to improve power and acceleration performance, supplementing the lead acid and propulsion batteries. Ultracapacitors, like capacitors and supercapacitors, store energy through electrostatic (rather than chemical) means. They can provide quick bursts of stored power, reducing the energy requirements of a vehicle’s other batteries, extending battery life, and improving vehicle fuel efficiency in city stop-and-go driving.93 Improving battery technology for ultimate use in pure electric and plug-in vehicles is the main objective of the NREL Energy Storage Research and Development program. The primary technological barrier to the full commercial implementation of electric vehicles is reducing the cost and weight of the batteries. Another chief concern of DOE scientists in the Battery Technology Development program is proper thermal control of electric vehicle batteries, which they see as “critical to achiev[ing] life, performance, cost, and safety goals of the energy storage system for vehicle applications under the FreedomCar and Vehicle Technologies program.”94 NREL Energy Storage Research and 107PDF Image | Shaping Energy Technology Transition
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