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as well as in some of the Plains and Gulf Coast states. However, prospecting for such fields is currently hit or miss. Given the marginal economics of power produc- tion from low-temperature geothermal resources, there is little exploration and development incentive. “Blind” reservoirs, for example, may give no indication of what lies beneath the surface, offering no visible geologic structures, hot springs, or trace emissions of telltale gases. Often these reservoirs are found accidentally while drilling for other reasons. Sinking shallow wells to find areas with higher- than-average temperature gradients is another way to locate viable resources close to the surface. Advanced exploration techniques are needed to attract invest- ment capital and are most likely to be developed by the oil and gas industry. In a binary system, geothermal fluid (geofluid) is pumped out of the ground, collected from multiple wells into a header, and run through a heat exchanger. On the other side of the heat exchanger is an organic fluid, such as isopentane or isobu- tane, that is vaporized, expanded through a turbine, and condensed in a closed-loop system. Never exposed to the atmosphere, the geofluid is pumped back into the ground in a separate closed-loop system. In recent years, many binary geothermal projects have been successfully placed on- line in the United States, while many oth- ers are in development. In the near term, they are projected to produce 2000–3000 MW of new capacity. EPRI recently completed economic studies of the likely costs of low-tempera- ture binary systems (EPRI report 1019775). The results suggest that they will be able compete with other forms of renewable energy, with capital costs of $4300–$7300 per kilowatt. Exploring Novel Approaches EPRI is studying a variety of novel approaches that could improve the eco- nomics and expand the reach of geother- mal energy. One is a hybrid solar-thermal and binary geothermal plant, which could 200 ̊C 150 ̊C 100 ̊C The U.S. geothermal resource base suitable for electricity production using existing and emerging technologies appears to span almost the entire country. Temperatures are based on a depth of 3.7 miles (6 kilometers). (Source: DOE Geothermal Technologies Program) 16 EPRI JOURNAL be particularly useful in the arid West, where plants rely on dry cooling. With ris- ing summer temperatures, the perfor- mance of the cooling system—and conse- quently the plant—degrades. For good year-round performance, heat exchangers must be oversized, requiring additional capital. Using solar technology to increase the temperature of the fluid could reduce capital costs, and more turbine capacity would become available. Coleman and his colleagues intend to do conceptual studies of which solar-thermal technologies are well matched to the binary-cycle condi- tions and where and how to administer the thermal boost to get optimal plant performance. Another approach is to harvest energy from a closed-loop, single-well system where the heat exchanger is located down in the reservoir itself, rather than on the surface. The advantage is that the exchanger is designed to work in a single borehole, such as an existing or abandoned oil well, pulling the heat out of the ground without extracting the geofluids. One idea being developed involves modifying or develop- ing a heat exchanger to be installed down- hole that does not rely on injection fluids except those contained in the closed heat exchanger loop. Dartmouth College mod- eled the potential for such a system, and the results have been covered in a recent EPRI report (1021607). Ensuring Careful Resource Management A critical aspect of managing geothermal resources is balancing water and energy to protect the resource and optimize electric- ity generation. “You can’t extract water or heat faster than it can be recharged,” said Coleman. “If your water declines, your production suffers, and you might be tempted to pump faster, exacerbating the situation. Similarly, if your heat declines, your plant performance goes down, and your means of compensation is to pump morewater,degradingyourreservoir.” Geothermal fields are green but not nec- essarily sustainable, as the producers at the Geysers painfully learned. The Geysers is a football-shaped reservoir about 7 miles (11.3 km) long and 5 miles (8.1 km) wide, located a mile or two below the surface; it can yield prodigious amounts of dry steam, the ultimate geothermal resource. The water in the reservoir was trapped at least 10,000 years ago, however, and has no natural groundwater recharge. Before thePDF Image | Expanding the footprint of Geothermal Energy
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