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Self-Powered Systems Chemie Health, infrastructure, and environmental monitoring as well as networking and defense technologies are only some of the potential areas of application of micro-/nanosystems (MNSs). It is highly desirable that these MNSs operate without an external electricity source and instead draw the energy they require from the environment in which they are used. This Review covers various approaches for energy harvesting to meet the future demand for self-powered MNSs. From the Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. Self-Sufficient Energy Harvesting for MNSs 3 3. Micro-/Nanotechnology- Enabled Technologies for Energy Harvesting 6 4. Self-Powered Micro-/ Nanosystems 18 Angewandte 1. Introduction With the growing threat of pollution, global warming, and energy crises caused by our strong dependence on the dwindling supply of nonrenewable fossil fuels, the search for clean and renewable alternative energy resources is one of the most urgent challenges to the sustainable development of human civilization.[1] In addition to the energy resources which drive human society today, such as petroleum, coal, hydraulic power, natural gas, wind power, and nuclear plants, a focus of active research and development is the exploration of alternative sustainable energy resources, such as solar energy,[2] geothermal power,[3] biomass/biofuel,[4] and hydro- gen energy.[5] Although there is potential for the use of these alternative sources for the large-scale supply of power, the energy that can be harvested from these sources is still mainly used for small-scale powering applications. A dramatic technological trend today is the rapid growth of personal and mobile electronics for applications in communication, health care, and environmental monitoring (Figure1). Individually, the power consumption of these electronics is low; however, the number of such devices deployed can be huge. Currently, the powering of electronic devices still relies on rechargeable batteries. The amount of batteries required increases in proportion with the increase in the number and density of mobile electronic devices used and may result in challenges for recycling and replacement of the batteries as well as concerns about potential environmental pollution. To effectively extend the lifetime of batteries and even completely replace batteries in some cases, a worldwide effort has begun towards the development of technologies for harvesting energy from our living environment, such as solar energy, thermoelectricity, mechanical vibration, and biofuels. The first target is to power sensors[6] and micro-/nanosystems (MNSs).[7] This Review focuses on recent advances in both the scientific understanding and technology development of energy harvesting specifically for powering future functional MNSs. 2. Self-Sufficient Energy Harvesting for MNSs 2.1. Application Requirements for Wireless, Self-Sufficient, and Intelligent MNSs There has been an increasing need for the design/ development of MNSs for wireless applications, and it is predicted that the market for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) alone will 2011 to $US 2 billion in 2021.[8] In addition to the conven- tional technology trajectory of shrinking device dimensions for faster operating speed as per Moore’s law, enormous efforts have been focused recently on integrating individual micro-/nanodevices with diversified functionalities into multi- functional MNSs and further into large-scale networks for applications in ultrasensitive chemical/biomolecular sens- ing,[9] remote and mobile environmental monitoring,[10] struc- tural health monitoring,[11] homeland security,[12] and port- able/wearable biomedical devices and personal electronics.[13] To address these application needs, each device/system node within the network should consist of a low-power micro- controller unit, high-performance data-processing/storage components, a wireless signal transceiver, ultrasensitive sensors based on a micro-/nanoelectromechancial system (MEMS/NEMS), and most importantly the embedded power- ing units.[7b,c,14] The integration of these conventionally discrete devices with dedicated functionality toward smart and self-powered systems is proposed to be one of the major road maps for electronics.[15] The miniaturized dimensions of nanomaterials and the ability to modulate their composition in a well-controlled manner to create properties that are not possible in their bulk counterparts provide the potential to address some of the critical challenges faced by silicon-based microelectronics as technology advances. Furthermore, these characteristics enable the incorporation of diversified func- tionalities into the systems to complement digital signal/data processing with augmented functional capabilities, such as interactions between the machine and humans or the environ- ment (Figure 2). Numerous nodes of such devices or systems can be spatially distributed and embedded virtually anywhere, from a remote field to civil structures and even the human body, to fulfill their respective purposes. It is therefore essential that these MNSs have an extended life span, especially for applications with limited human accessibility, [*] Prof. Z. L. Wang, W. Wu School of Materials Science and Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0245 (USA) E-mail: zhong.wang@mse.gatech.edu Prof. Z. L. Wang Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing (China) grow rapidly from $US 0.45 billion in Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.angewandte.org &&&& These are not the final page numbers! Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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