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3966 B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 Table 3 Few binary ORC geothermal power plants. Plants/location Amedee, USA Wineagle, USA Altheim, Austria Otake, Japan Nigorikawa, Japan Reno, NV, USA Resource temp. 104 110 106 130 140 158 (◦ C) Resource mass flow 205 l/s 63 l/s 86 l/s 14.661 kg/s 50 kg/s 556 kg/s Working fluid R-114 Isobutane – Isobutane R-114 Isobutane Gross/net power (MW) 2.0/1.5 0.75/0.6 –/1.0 –/1.0 –/1.0 27/21.744 Thermal efficiency (%) – – – 12.9 9.81 10.2 cept has two major problems: (1) safety concerns due to excess pressures in the evaporator and (2) difficult condensation with fluids displaying very low condensing temperature. 2.2. Solar thermal power systems 2.2.1. ModularorganicRankinecyclesolarsystems Several factors are increasing the market potential for small power plants: the need of distributed power systems in remote and isolated areas of developing countries, the need for sustain- able power for economic growth in developing countries, the need of small and efficient polygeneration systems for grid connected applications in developed countries, the need to generate clean electricity through renewable energy sources, and the deregula- tion and privatization of the electrical generation sector worldwide. In binary geothermal power plants, geothermal fluid replaced by other heat transfer fluids: water, synthetic/mineral oil, and nitrate salts heated up to 400 ◦ C in solar thermal collectors produce dis- tributed modular solar power plants in the kW to MW range. Modular organic Rankine cycle solar power plants operate on the same principle as conventional parabolic trough systems but use an organic fluid instead of steam. Advantages of these systems are as follows [50]: • Low temperature operation (<300 ◦ C): heat transfer fluids such as Caloria, low temperature solar collectors, and low temperature ORC modules which can operate well in regions with low solar radiation intensity like sub-Sahara African regions. • Modularity: large solar ORC plants of several MW power output can be built by combining on the same site a great number of ORC modules. • Reduced capital and O&M costs: cheap materials can be used – inexpensive heat transfer fluid, cheap solar collectors, and rel- atively cheap ORC machines. Air-cooled condensers save water resources, and remote operation reduces the number of opera- tors. Conventional CSP technologies include: central receiver sys- tems, parabolic trough (PTC), Integrated combined gas cycles (ICGC) and dish Stirling systems. Parabolic trough technology has demon- strated its ability to operate in a commercialized environment and several plants based on this technology were recently erected or are under construction [51]. It is considered at the moment as the most mature CSP technology but could face future competi- tion from Linear Fresnel Reflectors [52]. Owing to recent progress in Solar Material Sciences, various types of efficient and relatively cheap solar thermal collectors operating in the low to medium tem- perature ranges have been made available on the market [53,54]. Table 4 gives the operating temperature and concentration ratio of different solar thermal collectors’ technologies [55]. Small ORCs have been investigated since 1990s, but could not be widely implemented because of the lack of small and effi- cient expansion devices. Although various types of devices were investigated as potential expansion machine candidates, none emerged with good reliability and outstanding performances to bring cogeneration ORCs at commercial stage. Badr et al. [56,57] assessed several types of power-producing machines for low power generation including turbines (radial, impulse, reaction, and multi- stage) and positive displacement units (screw, piston, and vane expanders and Wankel engines) from which screw and Wankel- type expanders showed good prospects. In low power range (<1MW), turbines are not suitable because of their lower effi- ciency and higher manufacturing cost whereas it represents the technology of choice for large scale systems. Recalling desired char- acteristics of a good machine, it should be highly reliable and highly efficient throughout wide ranges of operating conditions, possess very few moving parts, display low vibration and noise levels, and be inexpensive. Kane [58], Lemort [59], Quoilin et al. [60] and Smith et al. [31] are among authors who suggested scroll and screw expanders in regard to the performances achieved – global isen- tropic efficiency up to 70% [30,56,59,61–63]. Other aspects: system design and optimization [64–68], system dynamics and controls [69], solar collectors and working fluids selection [13,70–72], and experimental research [73–78] of solar modular power plants have been subject to intense activities last few years. In an attempt to show variety of research carried out, few of successful works are quoted in up-coming lines. Nguyen et al. [78] built and tested a prototype of low tem- perature ORC system. It used n-Pentane as working fluid, and encompassed: a 60kW propane boiler, compact brazed heat exchangers, a compressed air diaphragm pump, and a radial flow turbine (65,000 rpm) coupled to a high speed alternator (Fig. 3). With hot water inlet temperature: 93 ◦ C, evaporating temperature: 81 ◦ C, condensing temperature: 38 ◦ C and a working fluid mass flow rate of 0.10 kg/s, the power output obtained was 1.44 kWe and the efficiency 4.3%. The cost of the unit was estimated at £21,560. The turbine-generator accounted for more than 37% of the system cost. Authors concluded that the system could be cost-effective in remote areas were good solar radiation is available provided the efficiency of the expander is improved (>50%) and the unit pro- duced in mass. Medium temperature collectors coupled with ORC modules could efficiently work in cogeneration application producing hot Table 4 Typical temperature and concentration range of technologies. Technology T [◦C] Air collector 0–50 Pool collector 0–50 Reflector collector 50–90 Solar pond 70–90 Solar chimney 20–80 Flat plate collector 30–100 Advanced Flat Plate collector 80–150 Combined heat and power solar 80–150 collector (CHAPS) Evacuated tube collector 90–200 Compound Parabolic CPC 70–240 Fresnel reflector technology 100–400 Parabolic trough 70–400 Heliostat field + Central receiver 500–800 Dish concentrators 500–1200 the various solar thermal collector Concentration Tracking ratio 1 – 1 – – – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 8–80 One-axis 1 – 1–5 – 8–80 One-axis 8–80 One-axis 600–1000 Two-axis 800–8000 Two-axisPDF Image | Nevada Inventor Richard Langson to Confer With President Obama
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