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Geothermal electricity 2 variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated.[15] The global average was 73% in 2005. Resources proximity to tectonic plate boundaries. The earth’s heat content is 1031 joules.[2] This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 terawatts, (TW,)[16] and is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW.[4] These power rates are more than double humanity’s current energy consumption from primary sources, but most of this power is too diffuse (approximately 0.1 W/m2 on average) to be recoverable. The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) to release the heat underneath. Electricity generation requires high temperature resources that can only come from deep underground. The heat must be carried to the surface by fluid circulation, either through magma conduits, hot springs, hydrothermal circulation, oil wells, drilled water wells, or a combination of these. This circulation sometimes exists naturally where the crust is thin: magma conduits bring heat close to the surface, and hot springs bring the heat to the surface. If no hot spring is available, a well must be drilled into a hot aquifer. Away from tectonic plate boundaries the geothermal gradient is 25-30°C per kilometre (km) of depth in most of the world, and wells would have to be several kilometres deep to permit electricity generation.[2] The quantity and quality of recoverable resources improves with drilling depth and Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall 5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock In ground that is hot but dry, or where water pressure is inadequate, injected fluid can stimulate production. Developers bore two holes into a candidate site, and fracture the rock between them with explosives or high pressure water. Then they pump water or liquefied carbon dioxide down one borehole, and it comes up the other borehole as a gas.[12] This approach is called hot dry rock geothermal energy in Europe, or enhanced geothermal systems in North America. Much greater potential may be available from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural aquifers.[12] Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW depending on the scale of investments.[2] This does not include non-electric heat recovered by co-generation, geothermal heat pumps and other direct use. A 2006 report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), that included the potential of enhanced geothermal systems, estimated that investing 1 billion US dollars in research and development over 15 years would allow the creation of 100 GW of electrical generating capacity by 2050 in the United States alone.[12] The MIT report estimated that over 200 zettajoules (ZJ) would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2,000 ZJ with technology improvements - sufficient to provide all the world's present energy needs for several millennia.[12] At present, geothermal wells are rarely more than 3 kilometres (2 mi) deep.[2] Upper estimates of geothermal resources assume wells as deep as 10 kilometres (6 mi). Drilling at this depth is now possible in the petroleum industry, although it is an expensive process. The deepest research well in the world, the Kola superdeep borehole, is 12 kilometres (7 mi) deep.[17] This record has recently been imitated by commercial oil wells, such as Exxon's Z-12 well in the Chayvo field, Sakhalin.[18] Wells drilled to depths greater than 4 kilometres (2 mi) generally incur drillingPDF Image | Geothermal electricity
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