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146 Sweden Sweden came in early with geothermal heat pumps for domes- tic heating. Already in 1985, there were some 50,000 units of ground-source heat pumps installed (Bjelm, 1983). Today, there are at least 350,000 units and the annual sale over the past 4–5 years has been around 40,000 units (Hellström, 2006). It is estimated that all these units produce about 10% of the heat demand in all single houses and official buildings in Sweden. The useful heat from the electric energy to the heat pump is not included here (Olof Anders- son, personal communication, 2007). The annual energy use is esti- mated at 12,000 GWh/yr, making Sweden the largest GHP energy user in the Nordic countries and in the world in terms of GWh/yr. Most of the geothermal heat pumps are small scale units for sin- gle houses but a few large ones with an installed capacity of 20 to 45 MWt are running. The largest is in Lund with an installed capacity of 47 MWt utilizing two heat pumps. It has been producing heat for the local district heating network since 1985 and the yearly produc- tion is around 235,000 MWh/yr. About 550 l/s is produced from four production wells with a temperature of around 20°C. The water is produced from about 700 m and re-injected in five wells some 1500 m away from the production wells. The project is a great success with very high availability and excellent economy. Production for domestic cooling is now becoming a new and more and more popu- lar application of the use of ground source heat. It is estimated that at least 100 MWh/yr was produced during 2006 and a rapid increase is expected over the coming years. Energy savings Using geothermal energy in direct-use applications replaces fossil- fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. Table 10 shows the savings brought about by the direct-use of geothermal energy assuming that it replaces electricity generated from fossil- fuels (conversion efficiency estimated at 0.35) If direct-use applica- tions replace burning the fuel directly, then about half of this amount to fuel oil would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% effi- ciency). Savings in the cooling mode of geothermal heat pumps is also included in the figures in Table 10. The savings in fossil fuel oil are equivalent to about three days (1%) of the world’s consumption. It should be noted when considering these savings, that some geothermal plants do emit limited amounts of the various pollutants; however, these are reduced to near zero where gas injection is used and eliminated where binary power is installed for electric power genera- tion. Since most direct-use projects use only hot water and the spent fluid is reinjected, the above pollutants are essentially eliminated. Conclusions Growth and development of geothermal electricity generation has increased significantly over the past 30 years approaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to an economic slowdown in the Far East and the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. The major- ity of the increase has been due to geothermal heat pumps. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a seven-fold increase in participating countries. At least another 10 countries are actively exploring for geothermal resources and should be online by 2010. Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using lower tem- perature fluids down to 100°C. This low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics and efficiency of these systems, such as shown by installations in Germany and Austria and at Chena Hot Springs, Alaska. At the other end of the scale the Iceland Deep Drilling Project aims at testing whether it is feasible to extract super- critical fluids at 450–600°C from the deeper parts of the geothermal reservoirs. Also, there is increased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve products that might normally be wasted. Finally, the largest growth will include the installation and use of geothermal heat pumps, as they can be used anywhere in the world, as shown by the large developments in Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Germany and the United States. References Bertani, R., 2005, “World Geothermal General 2001–2005—State of the Art.”: Geothermics, v. 34, no. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Bertani, R., 2007, “World Geothermal Generation in 2007”: Proceedings European Geothermal Congress 2007, Unterhaching, Germany. Bjelm, L. and Schärnell, L., 1983, Large heat pump plants for district heating utilizing geothermal energy: International symposium on Geothermal Energy, Portland, USA, Engineering Geology, Lund University and STAL LAVAL TURBIN A, Finspong. Björnsson, S., 2006, Geothermal development and research in Iceland: National Energy Authority and Ministries of Industry and Commerce, p.38. Cataldi, R., S. Hodgson and J. Lund, 1999 (Editors) Stories from a Heated Earth—Our Geothermal Heritage: Geothermal Resources Council, Davis, CA, p. 569. Curtis R.H., Lund, J., Sanner, B., Rybach, L. and G. Hellström, 2005, Ground Source Heat Pumps—Geothermal Energy for Anyone, Anywhere: Cur- rent Worldwide Activity, Proceedings, World Geothermal Congress 2005, Turkey (International Geothermal Association). (available at: www.geot- hermal-energy.org). Danielsson, Fridfinnur, 2007, Alvarr Heat Pump Company, Reykjavik, Iceland, personal communication, 4 May, 2007). Fridleifsson, G.O. and Elders, W.A., 2005, The Iceland Deep Drilling Project: a search for deep unconventional geothermal resources: Geothermics, 34, pp. 269–285. Goddard, W.B. and C.B. Goddard, 1990, “Energy Fuel Sources and Their Contribution to Recent Global Air Pollution Trends”: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 14, Davis, CA, pp. 643–649. Gunnlaugsson, E., Frimannson H. and Sverrisson G.A., 2000, District heating in Reykjavik—70 years experience: Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan, pp. 2087–2092. Gunnarsson, A., Steingrimsson, B.S., Gunnlaugsson, G., Magnusson, J. and Maack, R., 1992, Nesjavellir geothermal co-generation power plant: Geot- hermics, 21, pp. 559–583. Hellström G., 2006, Ground Source Heat Pumps: Proceeding of the 6th Sympo- sium on Ground Source Heat Pumps, Karlsruhe, Germany, Nov. 2006. Hirvonen, J., 2002, Finland, A Rapidly Growing Heat Pump Market: Pro- ceedings of the 7th International Heat Pump Conference, China. (available at www.ivlampopumput.fi/eng.html). Hjartarson, H., Maack, R., Jóhannesson, S., 2005, Húsavík Energy—Multiple Use of Geothermal Energy: GHC Bulletin, v. 26, pp. 7–13. Kagel, A., Bates, D. and K. Gawell, 2005, “A Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment”: Geothermal Energy Association, Washington, D. C., p. 75. Kukkonen, I.T., 2000, Geothermal Energy in Finland: Proceedings, World Geot- hermal Congress 2000, Japan (International Geothermal Association). (avail- able at: www.geothermalenergy.org). Lund, J.W., Sanner, B., Rybach, L., Curtis, R., and G. Hellström, 2003, Ground-Source Heat Pumps, Renwable Energy World, James and James, UK (July-August), pp. 218–227. Lund, J.W., D.H. Freeston and T.L. Boyd, 2005, “Worldwide Direct-Uses of Geothermal Energy 2005”: Geothermics, v. 34, no. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 691–727. Lund, J.W., 2006, Chena Hot Springs: Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, v. 27, no. 3 (September), Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 2–4. Table 10 Energy and greenhouse gas savings from geothermal energy production (after Goddard and Goddard, 1990). March 2008PDF Image | Antioxidant potential of oregano (Oreganum vulgare L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme ( ymus vulgaris L.): application of oleoresins in vegetable oil
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