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Energies 2021, 14, 6805 32 of 72 The selectivity order for alkali metals by crown ether is dependent on the cavity size [181,184]. The bonding/extraction ability of crown ether toward lithium decreases as the crown ring size increases (Table 9 and Figure 15). Crown ethers and aza crown ethers of the structure 15-crown-5 or smaller have lithium selectivity, with 12-crown-4 and possibly 14-crown-4, with or without pendant arms, appearing to have the greatest selectivity toward lithium over competing alkali metals [17,63,181,184]. Table 9. Selectivity order of alkali metal cations with respect to various crown ethers [181,184]. Compound Benzo-12-crown-4 Benzo-14-crown-4 Dibenzo-14-crown-4 12-crown-4 13-crown-4 14-crown-4 15-crown-4 Selectivity Order Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+ Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ (no Cs+) Na+ > Li+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+ Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ ≥ Cs+ Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+ Li+ >> Na+ (no K+, Rb+, Cs+) Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Cs+ > Rb+ Li+/Na+ Ratio 1.8 4.7 0.6 1.7 2.3 20 3.5 Reproduced with permission from Wiley. Swain, B. (2016), Separation and purification of lithium by solvent extraction and supported liquid membrane, analysis of their mechanism: a review. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 91: 2549–2562. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.4976, accessed on 1 September 2021. Modifications of crown ether extractions include attaching crown ethers to carbon nanotubes, and combining crown ethers with ionic liquid extraction or supercritical fluid extraction (see below) [17,63,181,185–190]. Several studies have investigated polymerized crown ethers for lithium extraction [191–196]. All of these approaches have shown some degree of success for selective extraction of lithium from simple solutions. Other ethers have also been shown to have selective chemistry with lithium [197,198]. Although crown ethers and aza crown ethers have had successful application in the laboratory, there are significant barriers to commercial application of crown ethers for extraction of lithium from geothermal brines. Crown ethers are expensive to manufac- ture and the selectivity of crown ethers for lithium in complex solutions has not been proven [17,63,181]. The level of pretreatment required (i.e., to remove base metals) before crown ether extraction of lithium is not known. There is a consensus that crown ethers are promising, but more research and the development of economical crown ethers for extraction of lithium are needed [17,63,181]. 2.4.2. Multicomponent Solvent Systems Organic solvent extractants applied by the mining and metallurgy industry typically contain multiple components, including an extractant (a metal chelating or binding reagent), a co-extractant (an adduct forming synergistic reagent), and a diluent (a bulk solvent). Example diluents are kerosene, xylene, and alkanes, such as dodecane [172,177,179,180,199]. Extractants include neutral species, such as ketones, beta-diketones, or ionizable species, such as organophosphates (Table 10). Extractants may have a variety of ionizable functional groups, including carboxylic acid, phosphoric acid, or amines [63,172,175,179]. A variety of organic and inorganic compounds, such tri-n-octyl phosphine oxide (TOPO) or ferric chloride, serve as synergistic adducts (see discussion below). In some cases, extractants, such as bis-2,4,4-trimethyl pentyl phosphinic acid (Cyanex 272), are used alone [177,179]. More frequently, synergistic mixtures, such as di-2-ethylhexylphosphoric acid (D2EHPA) and TOPO, are applied together to enhance selectivity or recovery efficiency [177].PDF Image | Recovery of Lithium from Geothermal Brines
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