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Membranes 2022, 12, 373 18 of 29 4. Lithium Recovery from Lithium-Ion Battery Lithium-ion batteries are becoming an integral part of renewable-based energy systems that helps to provide an efficient and greener solution for energy storage. LIBs have found their use in a variety of applications ranging from portable electronic devices to energy grid systems. Owing to the reduction in CO2 emission and improved energy to fuel weight ratio, LIBs have also been widely used in electronic vehicles. LIBs have been especially desirable in this case due to their high charge to mass potential in comparison to other battery types [109,110]. In the recent decade, the extensive use of LIBs has posed not only a great threat to the world’s lithium resource depletion but also the prevailing problem concerning the consumed and non- recycled LIBs. Hence, immediate attention to alleviate any danger to the ecosystems due to the release of harmful chemicals is required [109]. Currently, as low as 3% of LIBs are recycled [111]. In a report, “Recycling rates of metals” published by UNEP in 2011, less than 1% of lithium is being recycled from LIBs [112]. To maintain a balance between lithium supply and demand, proper management of lithium resources, the development of highly cost-efficient waste disposal techniques and proper documentation of the environmental safety regulations are highly desirable [111,112]. Recently, efforts have been made to upgrade the already existing technologies and the developing new methods for Li recovery from both primary and secondary sources. The main aspect of these studies is to improve the sustainability of existing recycling processes and maintain economical and industrial feasibility. 4.1. Conventional Methods Currently, the commercial processes used for recycling and refining of lithium and other metals (including nickel, copper, cobalt, and aluminium) from LIBs can be di- vided into two major categories: (i) pre-treatment processes and (ii) metal-extraction processes [109]. 4.1.1. Pretreatment Process In a typical pre-treatment process, the spent LIBs are firstly discharged using saturated- salt solutions (e.g., NaCl and Na2SO4 salt solution) to prevent short-circuiting or self- ignition caused by combustion [113]. Furthermore, it is recommended to recycle the elec- trolyte before the discharging stage. This is achieved by using organic solvent extraction or supercritical carbon dioxide to prevent the formation of hazardous vapours from electrolyte (LiPF6) and salt contact [114,115]. The use of supercritical carbon dioxide has proven to be more effective as it does not contaminate the electrolyte and the electrolyte recovery is significantly simplified [116–118]. Then, the obtained batteries are disassembled manually to separate the cathode from the anode to facilitate metal extraction and further process- ing [119]. Different solvents are in use to dissolve the organic binder to effectively separate the cathode from aluminium foil using the solvent dissolution method [120–123]. Zhou et al. have found 60 ◦C as an optimum temperature for effective removal of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder through dissolution in dimethylformamide (DMF) [124]. Elsewhere, Zhang et al. used 15 vol% of trifluoroacetate (TFA) for dismantling the cathode from the aluminium foil through a solid-state reaction at relatively mild conditions of 40 ◦C for 180 min. The optimised liquid to solid (L/S) ratio was found to be 8 mL g−1 [125]. Another pre-treatment technique being used for the effective removal of strongly bonded PVDF from aluminium foil and the cathode material is ultrasonic-assisted sep- aration [126–128]. This technique utilizes the combined effect of ultrasonic waves and agitation to induce a cavitation effect. Li et al. found that the separation efficiency in- creased significantly when agitation was coupled with ultrasonic treatment [128]. He et al. achieved a 99% separation using n-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent in conjunc- tion with ultrasound waves [127]. Thermal treatment methods are also widely used for effective detachment of cathode from aluminium foil by high-temperature degradation of organic binder [129–132]. The temperature range for effective pyrolysis was recorded asPDF Image | Lithium Harvesting using Membranes
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Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |