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Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 680 8 of 20 a synthesis process that was able to produce graphene sheets that were suitable for the assembling of such photonic devices [44]. In addition, sensors based on the Hall effect are widely used in space. The Hall effect sensors are key electronic components present in a variety of devices that are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current measurements. The devices assembled with conventional semiconductors must be encapsulated in heavy-radiation- resistant packages to avoid damages and failures induced by neutron radiation. Tests performed in the UK’s National Physical Laboratory proved that graphene Hall sensors can withstand exposures to neutron doses as high as 241 mSv/h, about 30,000 times the neutron dose typically experienced in the International Space Station. Moreover, the replacement of silicon with graphene increases the sensitivity of these electronic devices, which require only few pW of power and are extremely lightweight. These valuable features make graphene Hall sensors well-suited for employment in satellites and spacecrafts [45]. 3.4. Solar Sails The solar-photon sails, commonly called solar sails, are innovative propulsion systems proposed to drive flights and the orbital manoeuvres of spacecrafts in deep space. A solar-photon sail utilises the pressure of solar photons to drive an object in space without using fuel or gases. The propulsion is given by the force that originates from light reflecting off a surface or being absorbed by it, and from the consequent pushing of the surface itself away from the light source. The concept of a solar sail is a potential option for driving long- duration extrasolar and interstellar exploration/colonisation missions, but the application requires a thin, light weighted, reflective, temperature tolerant, and space-environment- resistant sail. The technology of large sails made of polyimide and mylar coated with a metallic reflective thin layer was firstly tested in the IKAROS mission launched in 2010 by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and, after that, redesigned considering the use of graphene [46–48]. In [48], a low-weight solar sail obtained by the use of double-layer graphene on a holey copper grid is described. In this architecture, shown in Figure 5, the graphene sustains the highly-reflective ultrathin film covering the whole sail surface. The sail system of graphene micromembranes supported by copper grids was tested under microgravity and vacuum conditions by measuring the displacement induced by laser irradiations of a 3 mm scale model. Lasers with optical DC powers of 100, 500, and 1000 mW produced forces in the 8–248 nN range, and demonstrated the feasibility of the light-induced acceleration of the 2D sails. Currently, the visionary technology of solar sails made by free-floating graphene membranes has also been explored by China [49], by the Innovative Advanced Concepts Program of NASA [50], and by the Graphene Flagship Collaboration of ESA [51]. As reported in the ESA website [51], in 2020, a one-atom thin graphene solar sail under vacuum and in microgravity was successfully tested. The shining of a 1-W laser produced a 1-m/s2 acceleration of the sail. Solar sails based on graphene are extremely promising forms of spacecraft propulsion because these devices have few moving parts, use no propellent, and have long operational lifetimes.PDF Image | Role of Graphene in Space Technology
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