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406 Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths l To understand the energy transfer mechanisms that determine the thermal sensitivity of dual-center systems. Host-to-ion, ion-to-host, and ion-to-ion energy transfer mechanisms must be established and quantitatively described to clearly identify the functional form of D(T) and to compute the thermometric parameters. Malta’s formalisms of ion-to-ion (Malta, 2008) and ligand-to-ion (Malta and Silva, 1998; Malta et al., 1997) energy transfer derived for luminescent complexes can be used to address this problem. l To fully characterize heat transfer at the nanoscale (eg, in single heater– thermometer nanoplatforms and in nanofluids). For instance, continuous temperature monitoring with high-time resolution (1 s) under magnetic-, plasmonic-, or phonon-induced thermal heating opens intriguing possibili- ties in studies of the heat flow at the nanoscale, including thermal capaci- tance and conductivity across nanostructured media (Costescu et al., 2004), as for instance detailed studies in cellular thermal processes (Saunders and Verdin, 2009; Savitski et al., 2014). On the other hand, determining temperature gradients in a nanofluid (suspension of NPs) can pave the road to the quantitative characterization of the heat transport, a powerful tool to engineering the new generation of nanofluidic devices. l To develop effective primary thermometers. The use of self-calibrated thermometers characterized by a well-established state equation, relating a specific measured value to the absolute temperature without the need of tedious calibrations for each particular conditions, are especially attrac- tive when the thermometers are used in a different medium than that in which they are calibrated. l To design multifunctional nanothermometers. A new generation of sys- tems exploiting the synergetic integration of different functionalities in a single platform is required. Up to now, progresses have been essentially reported in assembling heaters and thermometers in the same NPs (Chen et al., 2015a; Debasu et al., 2013; Rohani et al., 2015; Song et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015a). The integration of other functions in these heater– thermometer nanoplatforms, such as drug-delivery, MRI, PDT, and IR imaging is highly required and has an enormous potential in areas such as bio applications and nanomedicine. l To integrate Ln3+-based thermometers in commercial products. The noto- rious advantages of luminescence thermometry relatively to well- established techniques (eg, IR thermometry) will make possible the advent of prototypes in the near future. In conclusion, Ln3+-based luminescence thermometry is a versatile technique working in a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, from the UV to the IR and using peak shift, lifetime, risetime, or intensity ratios as thermometric parameters. The thermometers can operate from few to hundreds of Kelvin degrees, the operational interval of the majority of the thermal sensorsPDF Image | HANDBOOK ON THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF RARE EARTHS
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