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Lanthanides in Luminescent Thermometry Chapter 281 341 Mecklenburg et al., 2015; Sa ̈ıdi et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2015; Tessier et al., 2007b; Wickberg et al., 2015), and microfluids (Aigouy et al., 2011; Barilero et al., 2009; del Rosal et al., 2014; Feng et al., 2011, 2013; Gosse et al., 2009; Graham et al., 2010; Mao et al., 2002; Samy et al., 2008). In living organism, for instance, temperature is continuously monitored (Narberhaus et al., 2006) being related to many cellular functions, including gene expression, protein stabilization, enzyme–ligand interactions, and enzyme activity (Hayashi et al., 2015; Jaque et al., 2014a; Somero, 1995; Suzuki et al., 2007; Zohar et al., 1998). Moreover, the expression of heat shock, cold shock, and some virulence genes is coordinated in response to temperature changes (Narberhaus et al., 2006). Intracellular temperature depends on the chemical reactions occurring inside cells (Okabe et al., 2012; Takei et al., 2014; Tsuji et al., 2013), which are accompanied by either heat release or heat absorption, with the concomitant modification of the ambient temperature (Homma et al., 2015; Lowell and Spiegelman, 2000; Qiao et al., 2014). Therefore, the ability to develop an accurate method to glean intracellular temperatures will lead to novel insight about cell pathology and physiology, in turn, contributing to novel theranostic techniques (Hayashi et al., 2015; Ke et al., 2012; Kucsko et al., 2013; Li et al., 2007; Vetrone et al., 2010b). Despite the considerable demand and the large number of papers pub- lished on the subject in the past decade (Arai et al., 2014, 2015; Donner et al., 2012; Gota et al., 2009; Hayashi et al., 2015; Homma et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2015; Okabe et al., 2012; Qiao et al., 2014; Vetrone et al., 2010a), high-resolution intracellular temperature distribution maps within liv- ing cells have not yet been recorded being nowadays a tremendous challenge for the scientific community (Jaque et al., 2014a). In microelectronics, the ongoing miniaturization of circuits and devices and the ever faster switching speeds generate significant thermal gradients at the submicron scale (as, for instance, in the case of the millions of transis- tors incorporated in modern microprocessors) increasing the importance of localized heating problems (Shi et al., 2015). Steady-state and transient char- acterization of the temperature distribution with high spatial resolution are, thus, critical for performance and reliability analysis (Asheghi and Yang, 2005; Christofferson et al., 2008), noninvasive off-chip characterization (Mecklenburg et al., 2015; Perpin ̃a et al., 2004; Shi et al., 2015), and for prob- ing and understanding energy dissipation and heat transport (Cahill et al., 2014). Moreover, in order to understand the working of such devices, a theory of statistical mechanics and thermodynamics at the microscopic and meso- scopic scales is required, comprehension of the limitations of the concept of temperature at the submicron scale is a prerequisite for such theory (Kliesch et al., 2014). The pioneer works of Hartmann et al. (Hartmann, 2006; Hartmann et al., 2004) and, more recently, of Kliesch et al. (2014) discuss this topic in terms of a minimal length scale on which the correlations betweenPDF Image | HANDBOOK ON THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF RARE EARTHS
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